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Audrey Schnell

Chi-Square Test of Independence Rule of Thumb: n > 5

by Audrey Schnell Leave a Comment

We all want rules of thumb even though we know they can be wrong, misleading or misinterpreted.

Rules of Thumb are like Urban Myths or like a bad game of ‘Telephone’.  The actual message gets totally distorted over time.
For example, you may have heard this one: “The Chi-Square test is invalid if we have fewer than 5 observations in a cell”.

[Read more…] about Chi-Square Test of Independence Rule of Thumb: n > 5

Tagged With: chi-square test, fisher exact test, rules of thumb, sample size, Yates correction

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What is Kappa and How Does It Measure Inter-rater Reliability?

by Audrey Schnell Leave a Comment

The Kappa Statistic or Cohen’s* Kappa is a statistical measure of inter-rater reliability for categorical variables. In fact, it’s almost synonymous with inter-rater reliability.

Kappa is used when two raters both apply a criterion based on a tool to assess whether or not some condition occurs. Examples include:

[Read more…] about What is Kappa and How Does It Measure Inter-rater Reliability?

Tagged With: inter rater reliability, Kappa statistic, rules of thumb

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The Secret to Importing Excel Spreadsheets into SAS

by Audrey Schnell Leave a Comment

My poor colleague was pulling her hair out in frustration today.

You know when you’re trying to do something quickly, and it’s supposed to be easy, only it’s not? And you try every solution you can think of and it still doesn’t work?

And even in the great age of the Internet, which is supposed to know all the things you don’t, you still can’t find the answer anywhere?

Cue hair-pulling.

Here’s what happened: She was trying to import an Excel spreadsheet into SAS, and it didn’t work.

Instead she got:

[Read more…] about The Secret to Importing Excel Spreadsheets into SAS

Tagged With: excel, guessingrows, importing data, proc import, SAS

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How to Understand a Risk Ratio of Less than 1

by Audrey Schnell 2 Comments

When a model has a binary outcome, one common effect size is a risk ratio. As a reminder, a risk ratio is simply a ratio of two probabilities. (The risk ratio is also called relative risk.)

Risk ratios are a bit trickier to interpret when they are less than one. 

A predictor variable with a risk ratio of less than one is often labeled a “protective factor” (at least in Epidemiology). This can be confusing because in our typical understanding of those terms, it makes no sense that a risk be protective.

So how can a RISK be protective? [Read more…] about How to Understand a Risk Ratio of Less than 1

Tagged With: binary outcome, predictor variable, probability, protective factor, relative risk, risk ratio

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What Is Regression to the Mean?

by Audrey Schnell Leave a Comment

by Audrey Schnell, PhD

Have you ever heard that “2 tall parents will have shorter children”?

This phenomenon, known as regression to the mean, has been used to explain everything from patterns in hereditary stature (as Galton first did in 1886) to why movie sequels or sophomore albums so often flop.

So just what is regression to the mean (RTM)? [Read more…] about What Is Regression to the Mean?

Tagged With: pre-post design, regression to the mean, Repeated Measures, two-phase sampling

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What Is Reliability and Why Does It Matter

by Audrey Schnell 1 Comment

by Audrey Schnell, PhD

Some variables are straightforward to measure without error – blood pressure, number of arrests, whether someone knew a word in a second language.

But many – perhaps most –  are not. Whenever a measurement has a potential for error, a key criterion for the soundness of that measurement is reliability.

Think of reliability as consistency or repeatability in measurements. [Read more…] about What Is Reliability and Why Does It Matter

Tagged With: inter rater reliability, internal consistency, reliability, test-retest reliability

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  • Life After Exploratory Factor Analysis: Estimating Internal Consistency

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