• Skip to primary navigation
  • Skip to main content
  • Skip to primary sidebar
The Analysis Factor

The Analysis Factor

Statistical Consulting, Resources, and Statistics Workshops for Researchers

  • our programs
    • Membership
    • Online Workshops
    • Free Webinars
    • Consulting Services
  • statistical resources
  • blog
  • about
    • Our Team
    • Our Core Values
    • Our Privacy Policy
    • Employment
    • Collaborate with Us
  • contact
  • login

OptinMon

Can Likert Scale Data ever be Continuous?

by Karen Grace-Martin  51 Comments

A very common question is whether it is legitimate to use Likert scale data in parametric statistical procedures that require interval data, such as Linear Regression, ANOVA, and Factor Analysis.

A typical Likert scale item has 5 to 11 points that indicate the degree of something. For example, it could measure agreement with a statement, such as 1=Strongly Disagree to 5=Strongly Agree. It can be a 1 to 5 scale, 0 to 10, etc. [Read more…] about Can Likert Scale Data ever be Continuous?

Tagged With: ANOVA, continuous variable, Factor Analysis, Likert Scale, linear regression, Model Assumptions, Nonparametric statistics

Related Posts

  • Beyond Median Splits: Meaningful Cut Points
  • Checking Assumptions in ANOVA and Linear Regression Models: The Distribution of Dependent Variables
  • Member Training: The Link Between ANOVA and Regression
  • Member Training: Centering

What is a Dunnett’s Test?

by guest contributer  Leave a Comment

I’m a big fan of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). I use it all the time. I learn a lot from it. But sometimes it doesn’t test the hypothesis I need. In this article, we’ll explore a test that is used when you care about a specific comparison among means: Dunnett’s test. [Read more…] about What is a Dunnett’s Test?

Tagged With: ANOVA, Dunnett's test

Related Posts

  • Member Training: Non-Parametric Analyses
  • The Problem with Using Tests for Statistical Assumptions
  • Member Training: The Multi-Faceted World of Residuals
  • Member Training: Using Excel to Graph Predicted Values from Regression Models

Getting Started with SPSS Syntax

by Karen Grace-Martin  Leave a Comment

spss-logoYou may have heard that using SPSS syntax is more efficient, gives you more control, and ultimately saves you time and frustration.  It’s all true.

….And yet you probably use SPSS because you don’t want to code.  You like the menus.

I get it.

I like the menus, too, and I use them all the time.

But I use syntax just as often.

At some point, if you want to do serious data analysis, you have to start using syntax.  [Read more…] about Getting Started with SPSS Syntax

Tagged With: SPSS, spss syntax, Statistical Software

Related Posts

  • Member Training: Introduction to SPSS Software Tutorial
  • How to do a Chi-square test when you only have proportions and denominators
  • SPSS, SAS, R, Stata, JMP? Choosing a Statistical Software Package or Two
  • Averaging and Adding Variables with Missing Data in SPSS

When the Results of Your ANOVA Table and Regression Coefficients Disagree

by Karen Grace-Martin  Leave a Comment

Have you ever had this happen? You run a regression model. It can be any kind—linear, logistic, multilevel, etc. In the ANOVA table, the effect of interest has a very low p-value. In the regression table, it doesn’t. Or vice-versa.

How can the same effect have two different p-values? In this article, let’s explore when this happens and what it means.

What the statistics in each table measures

The ANOVA table is a table of F tests. It may not be called the ANOVA table on your output, but it always includes a set of F tests. Some software procedures only give one F test for the model as a whole, but most will break it down into a series of F tests, one for each predictor variable or term in your model.

The regression coefficients table is a table of t tests. It includes each regression coefficient, along with its standard error, and usually a t test (some generalized linear models will have Wald or z tests instead, but they have the same role here).

Both tables often list out each predictor variable, along with a p-value for that variable’s conditional effect on Y.

There are two situations in which the p-values will match. Both must be true.

  1. The F test has one df. This happens in two situations. Either the predictor, X, is numerical or it’s categorical and binary (only two groups).
  2. The predictor is not involved with any interactions with a variable that is not centered at is mean.

If both of those are true, not only will the p-value match, but the t-statistic in the regression coefficients table will be the positive or negative square root of the F statistic.

An Example ANOVA Table with Matching and Unmatching Regression Coefficients

Here’s an example of an ANOVA table from a linear regression. In this example, there are four treatment groups, two genders, and age in years (measured continuously and centered at its mean). The response variable, Y, is a satisfaction score with a training. The four groups represented four learning strategies the adult learners were trained to use.

Let’s compare this to the regression coefficients table.

If you compare p-values across the two tables, you can see that Gender and Age have the same p-values, but Group doesn’t.

Gender and Age meet both conditions. Both have 1 df in the F table. Gender because it’s binary (two categories) and Age because it’s numerical). There are no interactions.

Group doesn’t match because it has 3 df in the F test. The F test is testing the null hypothesis that there is no difference among the four means. The t-tests in the regression coefficients table are testing three specific contrasts. Each one compares one group mean to the group 4 mean. For example, the group=1 coefficient tests whether the difference between the mean group 1 satisfaction score differs only from the group 4 score. It’s a different null hypothesis than the F test.

This would be the case whether or not there were interactions in the model that contain Group. Any time you have more that one df in the F test (you can see group has 3), you’ll get as many p-values in the regression coefficients as you have df in the F table. The p-values can’t match because there are more of them in the regression coefficients table.

Gender, which is also categorical, does have the same p-value in both tables. It has 1 df in the F test, which tests the null hypothesis that the two gender means have no variance (they’re the same). Gender is involved in an interaction, so the only reason the hypothesis test, and therefore the p-value, is the same is because the variable it interacts with, Age, is centered.

In conclusion, most of the time, it’s fine if the results don’t match. It’s because the two tables are reporting results of different hypothesis tests, based on what’s in your model.

Tagged With: ANOVA, F test, p-value, regression coefficients

Related Posts

  • Member Training: The Anatomy of an ANOVA Table
  • The General Linear Model, Analysis of Covariance, and How ANOVA and Linear Regression Really are the Same Model Wearing Different Clothes
  • Member Training: The Link Between ANOVA and Regression
  • Member Training: Centering

Confusing Statistical Term #13: Missing at Random and Missing Completely at Random

by Karen Grace-Martin  5 Comments

Stage 2One of the important issues with missing data is the missing data mechanism. You may have heard of these: Missing Completely at Random (MCAR), Missing at Random (MAR), and Missing Not at Random (MNAR).

The mechanism is important because it affects how much the missing data bias your results. This has a big impact on what is a reasonable approach to dealing with the missing data.  So you have to take it into account in choosing an approach.

The concepts of these mechanisms can be a bit abstract.missing data

And to top it off, two of these mechanisms have really confusing names: Missing Completely at Random and Missing at Random.

Missing Completely at Random (MCAR)

Missing Completely at Random is pretty straightforward.  What it means is what is [Read more…] about Confusing Statistical Term #13: Missing at Random and Missing Completely at Random

Tagged With: MAR, MCAR, missing at random, missing completely at random, Missing Data

Related Posts

  • Missing Data Mechanisms: A Primer
  • When Listwise Deletion works for Missing Data
  • How to Diagnose the Missing Data Mechanism
  • Multiple Imputation in a Nutshell

What is a Completely Randomized Design?

by Kim Love  Leave a Comment

Stage 2The most basic experimental design is the completely randomized design. It is simple and straightforward when plenty of unrelated subjects are available for an experiment. It’s so simple, it almost seems obvious. But there are important principles in this simple design that are important for tackling more complex experimental designs.

Let’s take a look.

How It Works

The basic idea of any experiment is to learn how different conditions or versions of a treatment affect an outcome. To do this, you assign subjects to different treatment groups. You then run the experiment and record the results for each subject.

Afterward, you use statistical methods to determine whether the different treatment groups have different outcomes.

Key principles for any experimental design are randomization, replication, and reduction of variance. Randomization means assigning the subjects to the different groups in a random way.

Replication means ensuring there are multiple subjects in each group.

Reduction of variance refers to removing or accounting for systematic differences among subjects. Completely randomized designs address the first two principles in a simple way.

To execute a completely randomized design, first determine how many versions of the treatment there are. Next determine how many subjects are available. Divide the number of subjects by the number of treatments to get the number of subjects in each group.

The final design step is to randomly assign individual subjects to fill the spots in each group.

Example

Suppose you are running an experiment. You want to compare three training regimens that may affect the time it takes to run one mile. You also have 12 human subjects who are willing to participate in the experiment. Because you have three training regimens, you will have 12/3 = 4 subjects in each group.

Statistical software (or even Excel) can do the actual assignment. You only need to start by numbering the subjects from 1 to 12 in any way that is convenient. The following table shows one possible random assignment of 12 subjects to three groups.

It’s okay if the number of replicates in each group isn’t exactly the same. Make them as even as possible and assign more to groups that are more interesting to you. Modern statistical software has no trouble adjusting for different sample sizes.

When there is more than one treatment variable, not much changes. Use the combination of treatments when performing random assignment.

For example, say that you add a diet treatment with two conditions in addition to the training. Combined with the three versions of training, there are six possible treatment groups. Assign the subjects in the exact way already described, but with six groups instead of three.

Do not skip randomization! Randomization is the only way to ensure your groups are similar except for the treatment. This is important to ensuring you can attribute group differences to the treatment.

When This Design DOESN’T Work

The completely randomized design is excellent when plenty of unrelated subjects are available to sample.  But some situations call for more advanced designs.

This design doesn’t address the third principle of experimental design, reduction of variance.

Sure, you may be able to address this by adding covariates to the analysis. These are variables that are not experimentally assigned but you can measure them. But if reduction of variance is important, other designs do this better.

If some of the subjects are related to each other or a single subject is exposed to multiple conditions of a treatment, you’re going to need another design.

Sometimes it is important to measure outcomes more than once during experimental treatment. For example, you might want to know how quickly the subjects make progress in their training. Again, any repeated measures of outcomes constitute a more complicated design.

Strengths of the Completely Randomized Design

When it works, it has many strengths.

It’s not only easy to create, it’s straightforward to analyze. The results are relatively easy to explain to a non-statistical audience.

Finally, familiarity with this design will help you recognize when it isn’t appropriate. Understanding the ways in which it is not appropriate can help you choose a more advanced design.

Tagged With: experimental design, randomization, Randomized Trials

Related Posts

  • Three Principles of Experimental Designs
  • Member Training: Classic Experimental Designs
  • Member Training: An Introduction into the Grammar of Graphics
  • Member Training: The Link Between ANOVA and Regression

  • Go to page 1
  • Go to page 2
  • Go to page 3
  • Interim pages omitted …
  • Go to page 73
  • Go to Next Page »

Primary Sidebar

This Month’s Statistically Speaking Live Training

  • Member Training: The Link Between ANOVA and Regression

Upcoming Workshops

    No Events

Upcoming Free Webinars

TBA

Quick links

Our Programs Statistical Resources Blog/News About Contact Log in

Contact

Upcoming

Free Webinars Membership Trainings Workshops

Privacy Policy

Search

Copyright © 2008–2023 The Analysis Factor, LLC.
All rights reserved.

The Analysis Factor uses cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience of our website. If you continue we assume that you consent to receive cookies on all websites from The Analysis Factor.
Continue Privacy Policy
Privacy & Cookies Policy

Privacy Overview

This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience.
Necessary
Always Enabled
Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. This category only includes cookies that ensures basic functionalities and security features of the website. These cookies do not store any personal information.
Non-necessary
Any cookies that may not be particularly necessary for the website to function and is used specifically to collect user personal data via analytics, ads, other embedded contents are termed as non-necessary cookies. It is mandatory to procure user consent prior to running these cookies on your website.
SAVE & ACCEPT